Explorer's Blog: March 2019

REVIEW:

Published in the Puratattva48 (2018):pp. 244-250

Chakrabarti, Dilip K. 2018. The Borderlands and Boundaries of the Indian Subcontinent, Aryan Books International, New Delhi: ISBN: 978-81-7305-594-2. Price Rs. 1950.00

The introduction of the book under review clearly defines its subject and scope and the area under discussion - stretched across Central Asia and Tibet in the north, Iran in the west, Myanmar in the east and the area in between including Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern Himalayas from Ladakh to Arunachal Pradesh. Further the book is divided in to four parts.

Part I, comprising five chapters dealing with the Baluchi hills, the Hindukush, and the Karakoram: Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the Uplands from Peshawar to the Pamirs. Chapter 1 (1.I – 1.IV) discusses the general geographical and historical setting of the Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan. Greater details of the geographical aspects are given one-by-one in the opening sub-chapters of Chapters 2 and 3, devoted to Eurasian Steppe, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Pamir, Kyrgyzstan, Xinjing (Tarim basin, China), and Turkmenistan (Chapter 2: I.1-I.9), Iran, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, the Northwestern Frontier Region, from the Gomal Valley to Peshawar, Peshawar area to Swat, Dir, Chitral, Gilgit and Hunza, Ladakh (Chapter 3: I-VI). These details outline the Eurasian grass land stretched from Eastern Europe to Manchuria (eastern China), major rivers (such as Amu Darya along northern Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan etc.; the Kabul and Helmand, Afghanistan) and valleys, deserts (e.g. Taklamakan and Gobi), lakes, routes mineral sources mountains (the Kunlun, Tianshan, China; Hindukush, Afghanistan; Alty, the Caucasus, Zagros and Elburz, Iran; etc.) and passes across them, highlands of Pamir and Baluchistan, forests, climate, nature of land, borders of the countries, oases, green covers on mountains, alpine zones, major agricultural products, live-stock, and so on.

The major routes include the Silk route connecting Inner China-Tarim Basin-Tajikistan-Ujbekistan-Turkmenistan-Northern Iran-Turkey-Eastern Europe; the Royal Road connecting Susa (Iran) and Aegean Sea (Turkey) are described along with their feeder or interconnecting links. Other notable routes include those: across Hinudkush from south Afghanistan to Central Asia and Tarim Basin on the one hand and from the eastern highlands of eastern and southeastern Afghanistan towards Indus plain, linking Baluchistan via Bam, Kirman, Fars across Zagros to Khujestan further connected with Silk Route in the north through Turkemnia, and Zagros (Kermenshah), with Afghanistan (through Herat) passing along the southern Elburz (aligned east-west, Meshad-Azaerbaijan), and with Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan and Black Sea in the north; The routes connecting - Baluchistan (across Zagross) with Khujestan in the south, Silk Route in the north (via Turkemnia, and Zagros), Afghanistan (through Herat) passing along the southern Elburz, and Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan and Black Sea in the north, and so on.

Subsequent subsection deals with the historical setting of the Central Asian countries: such as Early Palaeolithic from Tajikistan (900-600ka BP), Kazakhstan (500-400ka BP), and Uzbekistan (126ka BP), Middle Palaeolithic from Tajikistan (ca. 40000 BP), Kyrgyzstan (ca. 70 000BP - ca. 43900, 38100 BP) and) and Uzbekistan (60-90ka BP); Upper Palaelithic sites (ca. 50000-40000BP) in the border area of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China and Russia and in their neighbouring area showing their extent and context; the overlapping of Mesolithic and Neolithic phases, Iran adjoining to Caspian side; several Mesolithic sites in Central Asian states including Pamirs (ca. 12^th-10^th mill. BP); Neolithic Hissar in Tajikistan (10000-6000BP; notably the stone tool industry of Jammu and Himachal Pradesh - marked for characteristic of Hissar Neolithic); the Neolithic sites, e.g. Kelteminar Culture (late 7^th mill BC) near Aral Sea ext(ended over parts of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan); the Djeitun culture: 6200-5000BC (Turkmenistan); copper-bronze using Namazga culture (phase I-V 5000-1900BC) partly extended over Tajikistan, Turkmenia, Iran, Baluchistan, and Afghanistan, and Suyangan culture (3^rd- 2^nd mill. BC), followed by Andronovo-Tazabagayav culture (2^nd mill BC), and late Bronze Age sites (2^nd mill BC) from Margiana (Turkmenistan) and Bactria; Early Iron Age sites at Yaz Tepe (Turkmenistan), Pirak (Baluchistan) etc. (2^nd mill BC - 6^th cent BC). In Iran: Early Palaeolithic (western Elburz), central Zagros and Baluchistan, Middle Palaeolithic (pre-40000 yrs BP, Zagros), Upper Palaeolithic (Zagros and Fars Plain: 35000-28000 yrs BP), and Terminal Palaeolithic (ca. 17000 yrs BP); Neolithic (ca. 10000 yrs BP onwards) from several sites such as Sheikh-e-abad and Zani (Kermensha), Ganj Dareh (Irani Kurdistan), Tepe Ali Kosh (Khujestan), Tepe Guran (Luristan), Tepe Asiab (Kermenshah), Hajji Firuz (Azerbaijan); Chalcolithic and later Bronze Age sites (5000 yrs BP onwards), e.g. Sialk and Susa (Khujestan), Tepe Yahya (Kirman), Shahr-i-Sokhta (Seistan), developed in Khujestan plain into civilization on the model of Mesopotamian Plain, having trade links within north and south Iran, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and the Indus Valley (attested by the presence of Indus seal impression, etched carnelian beads, etc). In Afghanistan: Darra-i-Kur, Badkhshan (Middle Palaeolithic: 50000-30000 BC), Ghazni (south), Qara Kamar (Samngan) in central region (Upper Palaeolithic, 32000 BC); Mesolithic 10500 BC), Aq Kupruk (Balkh, Upper Palaeolithic 15000-10000BC; Neolithic 8000 BC), the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age sites (e.g. Shortughai (Harappan) and Mundigak; Dashly Tepe (Balkh; ca. 2^nd mill BC). In Baluchistan the growth of early farming at Mehrgarh (ca. 7000 BC), associated with painted pottery tradition seemingly allied to Iran, and subsequently followed by chalcolithic culture up to Iron Age onwards.

It may be reasonable to note here that the recent researches in Ladakh have revealed evidence for Human activities from ca. 10000 yrs BP in Leh, Zanskar and Nubra regions. New evidence dating from the 2^nd mill BC have also emerged from Tarim basin. Amongst them the most important are the mummies from Urumchi and their DNA studies - on the basis of which the presence of the people from west as well as Indus Valley is suggested in that region during those days. Inclusion of such details in the next addition of this book would update the reader in this regard. The status of prehistoric background of the Gomal valley is also needs to be added.

The historical period in this region begins with the Achaemenid power which arose around mid-6^th century BC), under Cyrus the great, expanded by Darius-I, ruled for more than 200 yrs over an area extended from Egypt (west) to Indus Valley (east), Central Asia (north), and gulf of Persia and Oman, considered to be ‘the first centrally administered rule over various nations, and peoples with different components including customs, laws, religions (main religion Zoroastrianism), art and architecture, and an overarching Aramaic language, with prospering economy mainly because of the peace over such a wide area, the royal patronage to the communication system, currency weights and postal system. Followed by Alexander conquering them in 334-330 BC, Greco-Bactrians in Bactria (mid-2^nd cen. BC) amalgamating cultural traditions including Achaemenid and Classical Greek elements, the nomadic Parthians (2^nd cen. BC) adopting Achaemenid and later Seleucid Hellenistic traditions; the Kushan dynasty emerging out of Yuechi tribe and established an empire extending from Central Asia to mid-Ganga valley, providing a strong economic base, combining Achaemenid, Hellenistic and Indian traditions, and Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Greek and other religions; the Sassanids (4^th century) ruling over a large portion of Central Asia (till 7^th cen.); independence of Chorezm area in 5^th-4^th cen. till the arrival of Islam around mid-6^th century; White Hun’s occupation of Central Asia (5^th-6^th century), their subsequent defeat by an alliance of Persians and Turks; Nomads from Mongolia occupying Bactria and Samrkand in 5^th cen. AD and attacking on India; The Gok Turks power in Mongolia in 6^th century, reaching eastern Caspian; The. Tang dynasty of China occupying inner and outer Mongolia and eastern Central Asia comprising Karasahr and Kucha in 7^th-8^th century AD; Turkic speaking Uighurs rule in Tarim basin (850-1250); The Kitans of Manchuria, establishing Karakhistan state centred in the southeast Kazakhstan and northeast Kyrgyzstan and bordering Kyrgyzstan, their adoption of Islam (mid-10^th century), Kashgar as a religious and cultural centre; Iranian Islamic states - the Samnids (819-999 AD), the Quarknid (mid-10^th cen. AD); the Seljuks defeating Ghaznavid power in 1035 AD, their rule over bordering Iran-Afghanistan,; Mongols (13^th-14^th centuries) occupation of Central Asia, large area of west Asia and Europe, their conquests and plundering of Azerbaijan, Armenia and Eastern Europe up to the Black Sea etc; arising of many principalities (15^th century) in Central Asia, Emergence of Uzbegs (15^th-16^th century) in Syr and Amu Darya basin; Control of Uzbeg Khanates (early 18^th century) in whole of this region; Nadir Shah’s campaign to Oxus, Russia, Central Asia; Arrival Russians after conquest of Tashkent in 1865 and British intervention in 1887.

The author has emphasised that abundant historical sites, remains, coin hoards, etc, show contacts with Mesopotamia, Indus and Central Asia, specially Greek site Ai-Khanum (ca. 4^th cen. BC - ca. 130/ 150 BC), near Shortughai an argued that the views underlining Achaemenid inscriptions as a role model for Ashoka are shaky and the impact of their art and architecture is also limited. He has taken care of describing the Indian traders traversing across the Caspian to Black Sea at the height of trade between Central Asia; the Indian exports - mainly spices, perfumes and medicines, rice, and main imports - gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, horses, wines and slaves etc; role of Silk-Road; the factures resulting into an integrated Kushan art, architecture and settlement patterns having Central Asian, Indian, Chines, and Mediterranean components, corroborated by the names found in Kharoshthi inscriptions in India, the presence of Indian Buddhist missionaries, pilgrims, merchants, administrators, soldiers in Central Asia; The process of religious assimilation from the pre-Zoroastrian beliefs and Zoroastrian religion in Bactria, Greeks and Iranian religious elements, and Buddhism during the Ashoka’s time (3^rd cen, BC) and Siva - adopted as a principle deity on Kushan coins; The integration of Iranian, Indian, Greek, Roman and Parthin art components continued in Kushan art; Close relations of the Sassanians with China, Zoroastrianism becoming the main religion and other contemporary religions including Judaism, Christianity and Buddhism; Kashgar becoming a religious Islamic centre (10^th century) and Samarkand and Bukhara as main cultural centres in 11^th century, the administrative reforms by Mongols (13^th-14^th century), such as no kidnapping of women, right of women to own property, introduced record keeping, freedom of religion including Buddhism, Islam and Christianity etc.., the patronisation of art and architecture. Issues related to boundaries of Afghanistan, the Russo-Afghan, Durand Line, British Indian Baluchistan with Iran and related issues are discussed under the following sub-sections.

Part I, Chapter 4, exclusively devoted on Buddhism in Central Asia, traces the history of research in Tarim Basin from 19^th century with the reportings of birch-bark leaves bearing Buddhist text (1^st century) from Khotan, collections from Kashgar, ruins at Khotan, and Boven-manuscript from Kucha. However, this sections discusses mainly the outcome of the Aurel Stein’s expeditions (1900-1901, 1906-08 and 1913-16) which include Tibetan manuscripts, ancient pottery, Kharoshthi inscriptions, Chinese-documents, and other relics from Khotan showing Indian, Chinese and western influences, the stupas (3^rd-4^th century), monasteries, paintings (8^th-9^th c.), and other relics with Indian influence, Chinese taste in composition and drawing of frescos and paintings, Greek influence on clay seals bearing portrayal of Greek deities. Further, the details of passes traversed by Stein and his observations about the ancient sites and discoveries around the Taklamakan rim are also discussed. In this regard, author’s following observations are notable:

“The concept of Silk Road is the product of Western scholarship which found in it the reflection of Rome’s civilizing influence reaching as far east at the shores of the Pacific. It was this which was considered very exciting. Up to an extent this is all true but to assign the importance of this Mediterranean-China linkage only to the fact of this linkage adequately harping on the ramifications of the many subsidiary linkages which places like India maintained with it, cannot always the product of a true historical imagination. When in the 7^th century the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang braved the perils of the deserts between Dunhuang and Kahgar and those of high mountains between these deserts and the Indian plains, the main historical factor beyond Xuanzang’s perilous journey was not any imaginary ‘Silk Road’ but the fact of Buddhism itself.”

“Equally plausible is the spread of Buddhism to Khotan and the southern segment of the Tarim basin city-states as early as Asoka and subsequently became pre-eminent. Apart from that Indian languages and literature along with Ramayana, Mahabharata legends also reached perhaps with Indian migrants.”

Sub-section 4.IV describes Buddhist remains in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Largest in Afghanistan: at Guldara, between Kabul and Kapisa (Begram), the srupas, monastery (4^th-5^th c.) and archaeological remains from Begram (1^st c.), Kushan period Buddhist sites from Charikar, Bamiyan - comprising rock-cut Buddha statues and caves (ca. 3^rd c. >), Buddhist remains from Bactria, Kunduz, Taloquan, and Fondukistan, Gorband valley, Uzbekistan (1^st c. BC onwards), Budhist remains Turkmenistan (1^st-7^th c.) Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and southern Kazakhstan. While chapter 5 suggests the presence of Indian traders in Central Asia on the basis of Harappan finds at Shortughai (north Afghanistan), Altyn Tepe (Turkmenistan) and Shah Tepe and Hissar etc. (north Iran) (to procure Lapis Lazuli, tin etc.), Buddhist remains in Central Asia and Chinese Turkmenistan during the Indo-Greek and subsequent periods. Based on later sources (15^th-20^th c.), author has suggested the probability of pre-eminence of Indian traders in ancient context.

Part II, Chapter 6.I and 6.II describes geography of Tibet: bordered by Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir (Ladakh) in the east, Himalayan ranges of India (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh), Nepal and Bhutan to the south, Chinese states of Xinjiang in the north along the Kunlun and Altyn Tagh mountains and other states in the east; relatively level northern section (ca. 1200 km east-west) with average elevation of 5000 m, its of lakes; mountains running on southeast comprising valleys; Mansarovar lake and mount Kailash in the south-central section; the Brahmaputra and other major rivers the Indus, the Sutlej, and the Salwin, flowing towards India, China and Southeast Asia; cold dry northwest and ‘warm and wet southeast’, wide variety of localised climate, thinner air, more sunlight, lower temperature and less precipitation (18” rain and snow fall), wider variation (average 30⁰C max. and – 19⁰C min. night); arid grassy Changtang in northern Tibet, economic flora (e.g. willow, poplar, conifer, teak, birch) in rivers valleys in the southeast, mammal: wild yak, tiger, leopard, buffalo, goat and sheep; areas - uninhabitable, roamed by nomads, and settled by semi-nomads and agriculturists; staple crops: wheat barley, maze and pulse; mineral: gold, copper, borax, radium, iron, lead etc. The history of Tibet is described with the rule of Yarlung Dynasty (7^th c.), expanded over most of Tibet and parts of western China and Nepal, married Chinese and Nepalese princess, a period of strong Buddhist identity, adoption of Guptan Brahmi script, and procurement of Buddhist literature from India; Many autonomous kingdoms (9^th-13^th c.), subsequent occupation by Mongols and later by Chinese in 14^th cen.; The Ganden Phodrang dynasty, established by the 5^th Dalai Lama, under Mongol over-lordship till 1720, and thereafter under the Qing dynasty (China) up to 19^th c; Reversal, under the control of Dalai Lama who took shelter in India after Tibet’s Chinese occupation in 1959; The political activities, conflicts and other related aspects. Most notable observation of the author regarding Tibet is: “- historically Tibet was more closely related to India than China attested by her script, language, religion, a lot of Buddhist literature, extraordinarily rich religious iconography from India and long political interactions from 6^th century AD between the Tibet and India.” Reading of this chapter along with the outcome of recent researches regarding the Prehistoric Tibet (probably overlooked by the author) will make the earlier context in place.

Section 6.III describing Buddhism in Tibet and Mongolia, underlines: adoption of Buddhism as official religion of Tibet by the king Trisong Detsen (ca. 755) who invited two Buddhist Monks – Padmasambhava and Santraksit – from India; Padmasmabhava preached and spread Buddhism to Nepal and Himachal Pradesh; translation of Buddhist religious texts into Tibetan by Padmasambhava, Santaraksita along with others; establishment of Samye monastery (southeast to Lhasa) by Padmasmbhava, and the philosophical school of Yogachara-Svatantrika-Madhyamika by Santarakshita; Atisa Dipankara Srijana (982-1054), from Vikrampur area of Bengal), invited by the Tibetan king, who played very significant role in dissemination of Buddhist philosophy in Tibet; A few more schools of thoughts of Tibetan Buddhism: Kagyu (11^th c.), Sakyapa, Gelugpa (14^th c., associated with Dalai Lama), Jonagpa (13^th c.), and pre-Buddhist tradition Bonpo which subsequently merged with Buddhism; Buddhist monasteries established at Menri (11^th c), Drigung (11^th c), Yerpa (600-700) and many others in Tibet, Tabo (996) in Spiti Valley (Himachal Pradesh), Alchi (958-1055) in Leh (Ladakh); Buddhism, inspired by Tibetan tradition reaching Mongolia in pre-Mongol phase from Nepal, attested by the Sanskrit-Buddhist terms adopted in Sogdian language, numerous Buddhist monasteries and temples.

Section 6.IV discusses the position of Tibet as trading hub: major ancient routes known as “Ancient Tea and Horse Caravan Road” - Lhasa to China via Tachienlu (eastern Tibetan centre for trade with Sichuan and Yunnan) to Gyamdo/Chamdo (7^th to 20^th c.), exchanging principally tea from China and Hides, wool, deer horn, musk, gold dust, ponies, horse, cotton goods from Tibetan side; The extension of above routes to Burma, Nepal and India; One of the major north-eastern routes, from Lhasa, leading to Gansu corridor, used for timber, silk and salt trade, particularly musk gold dust, wool, furs, etc. from Tibet and Chinese silver, gold, wooden cloths from Mongolia by a route from Lhasa across the Changthang area; Another route, aligned towards west and turning north, through Gartok and Rudok, from Lhasa to Kashgar and Khotan (a centre for local as well as Chinese and Central Asian traders for the exchange of Tibetan and each other’s products), further linked with the routes from Ladakh through Damchok, Changla etc; The routes linking Ladakh with Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkand towards north, Kashmir in west, in south with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarkhand, Tibetand Nepal through various passes and the trade goods (mainly based on Janet Rizvi (2001), George Bogle (1774) and others); Section 16.V accounts the routes and trade mechanism prevailing from 18^th century onwards in Sikkim, Bhutan, Cooch Bihar, Bengal and Assam. The merchandise from Sikkim to Darjeeling, e.g. horses, cattle, sheep and goats, blankets, salt, musk, wax, ghee, millet, rice and copper (partly of Tibetan origin), reaching Sikkim through Gangtok and Dikeeling) while English cloth, metal utensils, tobacco and coral. Four routes are noted between Bhutan and Tibet: Paro-Lhasa (for Bengal), Punakha-Gyantse-Shighate-Lhasa, Bumthang-Lhasa, and Tashigang-Lhasa (for Assam); The trade goods of Tibetan, Bhutanese and Chinese origin being exchanged through these routes, mode of transportation, traders, porters, trading season, related fairs, opening points towards Bengal and Assam and so o; In Arunachal Pradesh the route through Se la pass via Tawang in north-east and Lohit valley in north-west as major trade links with Tibet. While the concerned boundaries of Ladakh with Tibet, fixed by the Treaty of Chusul in 1842 between Sikh, Dogra, Chinese and Lama Guru of Lhasa, the disputed areas between China and India (along the Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand) and Bhutan, and the MacMohan line at the top of Arunachal Pradesh and their related issues are discussed under subsection VI.

Part III (Chap. 7) describes border with Myanmar comprising: the Patkai range linked to Himalayan node in Arunachal, meeting Arakan range (Manipur); Kachin hill and Shan Plateau with routes to China (north), Laos and Thailand (east); Prehistoric sequence, e.g. fossil wood artefacts from Mandalay area (comparable to those from Lalmai hills in Bnagladesh), bone fragment of Homo erectus at New Gwe, rock paintings from Padahlin caves comprising occupation (13000 and 1750 BP), Neolithic level supposed to be of ca. 13000-8000 BP (similar to Hoabinian culture); Bronze and Iron Age (9^th-6^th c. BC) sites from Nyaumggan (near Mandalay) along Irrawaddy and in other areas. Historical period: associated with distinct ethno-linguistic groups such as Pyus, Mons and Burmese.

Sub-section 7. II details the remains found at the Pyu cities, Beikthano (180 BC - 610 AD) located in the Minbu tract; Halin (1^st to 8^th c.) north to Mandalay, Maingmaw (2^nd-6^th c.) and Binnaka in Kyakuse region, Srikshetra (1^st/2^nd- 9^th c.), and the Thaton located in north and south Myanmar; including burnt brick structures, fortification, monastery, stupas, temples, sculptures, inscriptions (mentioning Indian names), in Buddhist, Hindu, animist and secular association with clear imprint of Indian tradition; The author has also underlined the clear south Indian contact with the region, and probability of Bangladesh and Manipur links.

Sub-section 7.III outlines Arakan: located in the southwestern coastal Myanmar, separated by the Irrawaddy valley by the Arakan range comprising several passes linking upper and lower Myanmar, and connected with Chittagong area of bay of Bengal in the south; deltaic northern and the southern rocky and narrow; the tidal and navigable rivers, their arable valleys; among variety of timber including iron-wood; northern part considered to be a part of ancient Harikela (extended from Chittagong); based on Anandachandra’s inscription it is suggested that the area was ruled by the Chandra dynasty for 230 yrs (post Gupta to 1400); the remains from two important cites of this period Dhanyawadi and Vesali, comparable with the traditions of Pyu and north India.

Sub-section 7.IV discusses the city of Pagan (on Irrawaddy) and its history (849-1287); Anarvartha after defeating the Pyu and the Mon around mid-11^th c., established Pagan as his capital, expanded his territory up to Shan Plateau, lower Myanmar, Phuket in north Thailand and north Arakan; during his successors rule ‘diverse elements such as art, architecture, religion, language, literature, and ethnic plurality began to synthesize and took distinct Paganese forms’ with apparent Indian impact; the rise of Burmese language-script replacing the Pyu and Mon scripts; Mongols from north droving Pagan king in 1287; the archaeological remains of Pagan, e.g. stupa, temple (Buddhist and a few Hindu), painting, sculpture, fortification, etc; kingdoms of Ava of central Myanmar, the Pegu (late 13^th- mid-16^th c.), the Shan states (13^th-16^th c.), the Arakan (15^th-17^th c.), Taungoo dynasty (16^th-18^th c.), spread of Islam to Arakan, followed by extension of Portuguese, and the British by the 19^th c.

Concluding sub-sections of respective chapters and Part IV provide summary and discussion on the contents of all the chapters in a manner that those interested in getting an overall picture on the subject discussed in this book, without indulging in the intricacies and details of previous chapters, may go through them.

While going through the respective chapters of this book, the reviewer recalled again and again an old saying – i.e. ‘without geography, history hangs in the air’, and could realize its real significance, because the author has very carefully described the relevant geographical features of the concerned areas, which made it very easy to place the narratives in proper context. It may be noted that only a brief outline is given here about the book under review, which comprises 223 pages, including references, index and maps; therefore those seriously interested in the issues related to The Borderlands and Boundaries of the Indian Subcontinent, will have to have its full reading.

Rakesh Tewari

C-1/173, Sector-G, Jankipuram,

Lucknow – 226021

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REVIEW: The Borderlands and Boundaries of the Indian Subcontinent

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